Computing Transaction Gas

Endless transactions by default charge a base gas fee, regardless of market conditions. For each transaction, this "base gas" amount is based on three conditions:

1. Instructions.

2. Storage.

3. Payload.

The more function calls, branching conditional statements, etc. that a transaction requires, the more instruction gas it will cost. Likewise, the more reads from and writes into global storage that a transaction requires, the more storage gas it will cost. Finally, the more bytes in a transaction payload, the more it will cost.

Instruction gas

Basic instruction gas parameters are defined at instr.rs and include the following instruction types:

No-operation

Parameter	Meaning
nop	A no-operation

Control flow

Parameter	Meaning
ret	Return
abort	Abort
br_true	Execute conditional true branch
br_false	Execute conditional false branch
branch	Branch

Stack

Parameter	Meaning
pop	Pop from stack
ld_u8	Load a u8
ld_u16	Load a u16
ld_u32	Load a u32
ld_u64	Load a u64
ld_u128	Load a u128
ld_256	Load a u256
ld_true	Load a true
ld_false	Load a false
ld_const_base	Base cost to load a constant
ld_const_per_byte	Per-byte cost to load a constant

Local scope

Parameter	Meaning
imm_borrow_loc	Immutably borrow
mut_borrow_loc	Mutably borrow
imm_borrow_field	Immutably borrow a field
mut_borrow_field	Mutably borrow a field
imm_borrow_field_generic
mut_borrow_field_generic
copy_loc_base	Base cost to copy
copy_loc_per_abs_val_unit
move_loc_base	Move
st_loc_base

Calling

Parameter	Meaning
call_base	Base cost for a function call
call_per_arg	Cost per function argument
call_per_local	Cost per local argument
call_generic_base
call_generic_per_ty_arg	Cost per type argument
call_generic_per_arg
call_generic_per_local	Cost generic per local argument

Structs

Parameter	Meaning
pack_base	Base cost to pack a struct
pack_per_field	Cost to pack a struct, per field
pack_generic_base
pack_generic_per_field
unpack_base	Base cost to unpack a struct
unpack_per_field	Cost to unpack a struct, per field
unpack_generic_base
unpack_generic_per_field

References

Parameter	Meaning
read_ref_base	Base cost to read from a reference
read_ref_per_abs_val_unit
write_ref_base	Base cost to write to a reference
freeze_ref	Freeze a reference

Casting

Parameter	Meaning
cast_u8	Cast to a u8
cast_u16	Cast to a u16
cast_u32	Cast to a u32
cast_u64	Cast to a u64
cast_u128	Cast to a u128
cast_u256	Cast to a u256

Arithmetic

Parameter	Meaning
add	Add
sub	Subtract
mul	Multiply
mod_	Modulo
div	Divide

Bitwise

Parameter	Meaning
bit_or	OR: |
bit_and	AND: &
xor	XOR: ^
shl	Shift left: <<
shr	Shift right: >>

Boolean

Parameter	Meaning
or	OR: ||
and	AND: &&
not	NOT: !

Comparison

Parameter	Meaning
lt	Less than: <
gt	Greater than: >
le	Less than or equal to: <=
ge	Greater than or equal to: >=
eq_base	Base equality cost: ==
eq_per_abs_val_unit
neq_base	Base not equal cost: !=
neq_per_abs_val_unit

Global storage

Parameter	Meaning
imm_borrow_global_base	Base cost to immutably borrow: borrow_global<T>()
imm_borrow_global_generic_base
mut_borrow_global_base	Base cost to mutably borrow: borrow_global_mut<T>()
mut_borrow_global_generic_base
exists_base	Base cost to check existence: exists<T>()
exists_generic_base
move_from_base	Base cost to move from: move_from<T>()
move_from_generic_base
move_to_base	Base cost to move to: move_to<T>()
move_to_generic_base

Vectors

Parameter	Meaning
vec_len_base	Length of a vector
vec_imm_borrow_base	Immutably borrow an element
vec_mut_borrow_base	Mutably borrow an element
vec_push_back_base	Push back
vec_pop_back_base	Pop from the back
vec_swap_base	Swap elements
vec_pack_base	Base cost to pack a vector
vec_pack_per_elem	Cost to pack a vector per element
vec_unpack_base	Base cost to unpack a vector
vec_unpack_per_expected_elem	Base cost to unpack a vector per element

Additional storage gas parameters are defined in table.rs, move_stdlib.rs, and other assorted source files in endless-gas-schedule/src/.

IO and Storage charges

The following gas parameters are applied (i.e., charged) to represent the costs associated with transient storage device resources, including disk IOPS and bandwidth:

In Move, one can read from the global state:

Parameter	Meaning
storage_io_per_state_slot_read	charged per item loaded from global state
storage_io_per_state_byte_read	charged per byte loaded from global state

For a committed transaction, various things will be written to the ledger history. Notice that the ledger hisotry is subject to pruning and doesn't occupy permanent space on the disk, hence no storage fee charged for it.

Parameter	Meaning
storage_io_per_state_slot_write	charged per state write operation in the transaction output
storage_io_per_state_byte_write	charged per byte in all state write ops in the transaction output
storage_io_per_event_byte_write	charged per byte in all events in the transaction output
storage_io_per_transaction_byte_write	charged per byte in the transaction itself which is also part of the ledger history

The following storage fee parameters are applied (i.e., charged in absolute EDS values) to represent the disk space and structural costs associated with using the Endless authenticated data structure for storing items on the blockchain.

Parameter	Meaning
storage_fee_per_state_slot_create	allocating a state slot, by move_to(), table::add(), etc
storage_fee_per_state_byte	Notice this is charged every time the slot grows in size, not only at allocation time. (However, for simplicity, refunding is only at deletion time.

Vectors

Byte-wise fees are similarly assessed on vectors, which consume $\sum_{i = 0}^{n - 1} e_i + b(n)$ bytes, where:

• $n$ is the number of elements in the vector

• $e_i$ is the size of element $i$

• $b(n)$ is a "base size" which is a function of $n$

See the BCS sequence specification for more information on vector base size (technically a ULEB128), which typically occupies just one byte in practice, such that a vector of 100 u8 elements accounts for $100 + 1 = 101$ bytes. Hence, per the item-wise read methodology described above, reading the last element of such a vector is treated as a 101-byte read.

Payload gas

Payload gas is defined in transaction.rs, which incorporates storage gas with several payload- and pricing-associated parameters:

Parameter	Meaning
min_transaction_gas_units	Minimum internal gas units for a transaction, charged at the start of execution
large_transaction_cutoff	Size, in bytes, above which transactions will be charged an additional amount per byte
intrinsic_gas_per_byte	Internal gas units charged per byte for payloads above large_transaction_cutoff
maximum_number_of_gas_units	Upper limit on external gas units for a transaction
min_price_per_gas_unit	Minimum gas price allowed for a transaction
max_price_per_gas_unit	Maximum gas price allowed for a transaction
max_transaction_size_in_bytes	Maximum transaction payload size in bytes
gas_unit_scaling_factor	Conversion factor between internal gas units and external gas units

Here, "internal gas units" are defined as constants in source files like instr.rs and storage_gas.move, which are more granular than "external gas units" by a factor of gas_unit_scaling_factor: to convert from internal gas units to external gas units, divide by gas_unit_scaling_factor. Then, to convert from external gas units to octas, multiply by the "gas price", which denotes the number of octas per unit of external gas.

Optimization principles

Unit and pricing constants

As of the time of this writing, min_price_per_gas_unit in transaction.rs is defined as endless_global_constants::GAS_UNIT_PRICE (which is itself defined as 100), with other noteworthy transaction.rs constants as follows:

Constant	Value
min_price_per_gas_unit	100
max_price_per_gas_unit	10,000,000,000
gas_unit_scaling_factor	1,000,000

See Payload gas for the meaning of these constants.

Storage Fee

When the network load is low, the gas unit price is expected to be low, making most aspects of the transaction cost more affordable. However, the storage fee is an exception, as it's priced in terms of absolute EDS value. In most instances, the transaction fee is the predominant component of the overall transaction cost. This is especially true when a transaction allocates state slots, writes to sizable state items, emits numerous or large events, or when the transaction itself is a large one. All of these factors consume disk space on Endless nodes and are charged accordingly.

On the other hand, the storage refund incentivizes releasing state slots by deleting state items. The state slot fee is fully refunded upon slot deallocation, while the excess state byte fee is non-refundable. This will soon change by differentiating between permanent bytes (those in the global state) and relative ephemeral bytes (those that traverse the ledger history).

Some cost optimization strategies concerning the storage fee:

1. Minimize state item creation.

2. Minimize event emissions.

3. Avoid large state items, events, and transactions.

4. Clean up state items that are no longer in use.

5. If two fields are consistently updated together, group them into the same resource or resource group.

6. If a struct is large and only a few fields are updated frequently, move those fields to a separate resource or resource group.

Instruction gas

As of the time of this writing, all instruction gas operations are multiplied by the EXECUTION_GAS_MULTIPLIER defined in meter.rs, which is set to 20. Hence, the following representative operations assume gas costs as follows (divide internal gas by scaling factor, then multiply by minimum gas price):

Operation	Minimum Octas
Table add/borrow/remove box	240
Function call	200
Load constant	130
Globally borrow	100
Read/write reference	40
Load u128 on stack	16
Table box operation per byte	2

(Note that per-byte table box operation instruction gas does not account for storage gas, which is assessed separately).

For comparison, reading a 100-byte item costs $r_i + 100 * r_b = 3000 + 100 * 3 = 3300$ octas at minimum, some 16.5 times as much as a function call, and in general, instruction gas costs are largely dominated by storage gas costs.

Notably, however, there is still technically an incentive to reduce the number of function calls in a program, but engineering efforts are more effectively dedicated to writing modular, decomposed code that is geared toward reducing storage gas costs, rather than attempting to write repetitive code blocks with fewer nested functions (in nearly all cases).

In extreme cases it is possible for instruction gas to far outweigh storage gas, for example if a looping mathematical function takes 10,000 iterations to converge; but again this is an extreme case and for most applications storage gas has a larger impact on base gas than does instruction gas.

Payload gas

As of the time of this writing, transaction/mod.rs defines the minimum amount of internal gas per transaction as 1,500,000 internal units (15,000 octas at minimum), an amount that increases by 2,000 internal gas units (20 octas minimum) per byte for payloads larger than 600 bytes, with the maximum number of bytes permitted in a transaction set at 65536. Hence, in practice, payload gas is unlikely to be a concern.